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Deep eutectic solvent flow electrodes for high-voltage desalination via flow electrode capacitive deionisation
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This study pioneers the application of deep eutectic solvents (DES) as electrolytes in flow electrode capacitive deionisation (FCDI) desalination systems, providing a novel and improved alternative to aqueous flow electrodes. The deep eutectic solvent, choline chloride-urea (ChCl-U), was selected for its wide electrochemical stability window, allowing voltages exceeding 1.23 V, which is the limit for aqueous flow electrodes. The effect of water doping on the viscosity and performance of the DES flow electrodes was also investigated. Cyclic voltammetry confirmed the electrochemical stability, while rheological and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy revealed that the addition of water reduced the viscosity and enhanced the conductivity of ChCl-U, making it suitable for use as an electrolyte in FCDI. Desalination experiments were performed within a potential range of up to 2.2 V. The ChCl-U flow electrode, containing 20 wt% water and 10 wt% activated carbon, achieved the best balance between desalination efficiency (83 %), desalination rate (0.17 mg/cm2.min), and effluent quality. Furthermore, 1H NMR analysis confirmed the absence of traces of the deep eutectic solvent in the dilute stream. The results highlight the potential of DES flow electrodes to enhance desalination processes by enabling higher operational voltages and improved performance, thereby paving the way for more efficient FCDI desalination systems.
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Funding Information:
Elena Gabirondo acknowledges the Basque Government for her postdoctoral fellowship POS_2022_1_0040 and Hafiz M. Saif is grateful to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT/MCTES) for his PhD grant 2020.09828.BD (doi:10.54499/2020.09828.BD). This work received funding from the FCT/MCTES under grant agreement No PTDC/EQU-EQU/6193/2020 (Se(L)ect(i)vity) and LISBOA2030-FEDER-00729800 (n° 16144 – Li-cycle). This work was also supported by the following research centres financed by national Portuguese funds from FCT/MCTES: Associate Laboratory for Green Chemistry – LAQV (UIDB/50006/2023), LEAF (UIDB/04129/2020), CEMMPRE (UID/EMS/00285/2020) and ARISE (LA/P/0112/2020).
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© 2025 The Authors
Palavras-chave
Deep eutectic solvents Desalination Flow electrode capacitive deionisation Flow electrodes General Chemistry General Chemical Engineering General Materials Science Water Science and Technology Mechanical Engineering